Mother Dearest: Impacts on the Developing Brain and Reading Outcomes

Top

00:00:09.27 Reading… have you thought about it lately?
00:00:13.11 Have you thought about the intricacies of the process,
00:00:16.28 how the pages feel on your fingers
00:00:19.02 as you’re turning them one by one,
00:00:21.06 the different letters that you see,
00:00:23.07 and how they sound?
00:00:25.07 And how those different letters form together
00:00:27.16 to create words,
00:00:29.16 and then much larger sentences,
00:00:31.25 where you’re able to extract the meaning from the text?
00:00:34.09 Have you thought about it lately?
00:00:37.12 When I was a kid, I used to spend my summers
00:00:40.18 at the public library in my neighborhood.
00:00:43.19 I would walk through the different aisles,
00:00:47.20 where I would smell the aged pages and the ink.
00:00:50.15 I would be so excited to be in the section
00:00:54.00 that contained Goosebumps and all of the horror
00:00:59.04 or science fiction books that I could engage with.
00:01:02.16 I could be a member of the Lost Boys tribe,
00:01:05.25 fighting alongside Peter Pan against Captain Hook,
00:01:09.14 or I could be a mermaid,
00:01:11.26 going against the ocean’s floor looking for knickknacks.
00:01:14.24 At that moment, I could be anything that I wanted to be
00:01:18.04 and, if even for a little bit,
00:01:20.29 not a child with reading difficulties.
00:01:24.17 Reading difficulties are a journey.
00:01:27.03 And for me, it was very difficult when I was growing up
00:01:31.11 to learn the process in an effective way.
00:01:34.25 I loved to read.
00:01:37.00 But it was just a little bit harder for me
00:01:39.20 to comprehend information while I was reading the text.
00:01:43.07 My mother and my father felt that it was best
00:01:46.22 to enroll me in a learning center,
00:01:48.21 where I got help with reading comprehension,
00:01:52.06 with my decoding of information,
00:01:55.09 and I received a lot of tutoring and educational services
00:01:58.02 that really helped to prepare me to be a better reader.
00:02:01.11 Because of that support and that love and that…
00:02:05.04 that urgency to pour into me
00:02:08.00 and make sure that I was prepared for my future,
00:02:10.20 now I’m sitting here today as a neuroscience doctoral candidate
00:02:14.10 pursuing a PhD
00:02:17.01 and looking at how socioeconomic status
00:02:19.22 can impact reading ability.
00:02:22.17 Now, I keep talking about this term “reading difficulties” —
00:02:26.07 what are they?
00:02:27.27 Well, reading difficulties affect 5-15% of school-age children.
00:02:33.05 And it typically happens around third grade,
00:02:35.17 where children aren’t necessarily able to make the shift
00:02:39.07 from learning to read to reading to learn.
00:02:41.12 Reading is like building a house.
00:02:43.16 You need the foundations to be able to do the process effectively.
00:02:46.22 So, you need language processing,
00:02:48.29 which relies on phonology:
00:02:51.13 your ability to identify speech sounds.
00:02:54.13 You also need your semantics,
00:02:56.27 which is your vocabulary knowledge,
00:02:59.17 and that is also often built in an enriching language environment.
00:03:03.23 You also have executive functions, which is another brick of the house.
00:03:08.10 You rely on inhibition, working memory,
00:03:10.20 your ability to focus on what’s happening in front of you.
00:03:14.11 And all of those abilities, combined,
00:03:17.15 help with your formation of your roof,
00:03:19.08 which is reading comprehension.
00:03:21.14 And so, you’re able to extract meaning from the text
00:03:23.09 that’s right in front of you
00:03:25.04 in order to understand or comprehend what you’re reading.
00:03:29.11 I know that we’ve talked about the behavioral levels of reading.
00:03:33.02 But on the neurobiological level,
00:03:35.06 the brain is like an electrical grid.
00:03:38.04 It contains billions of neurons
00:03:41.18 that are connected and communicating with one another
00:03:45.18 as you’re carrying out various tasks throughout your day.
00:03:49.16 And it’s absolutely essential that your brain is functioning appropriately
00:03:54.25 for you to be able to carry out various tasks.
00:03:59.13 Now, with the brain,
00:04:01.02 a simple view of it is it contains two hemispheres:
00:04:04.28 you have your right hemisphere, which is involved with creativity,
00:04:08.27 and you have your left hemisphere,
00:04:10.27 which is involved with logic and reasoning.
00:04:13.09 And for children that are starting out and they’re learning to read,
00:04:17.23 they have increased activation in frontal regions of the brain,
00:04:21.28 showing that they’re allocating more effort or strain
00:04:26.10 to focusing on the task at hand.
00:04:28.26 But as children become more skilled readers,
00:04:31.19 they rely more so on the left hemisphere of the brain,
00:04:34.24 through the usage of the language network.
00:04:39.15 For children who are developing,
00:04:41.20 and while they’re engaging in narrative comprehension,
00:04:44.10 which is you listening to stories and being able to
00:04:48.14 extract meaning from what you’re hearing,
00:04:50.24 we can see that for two different populations of children…
00:04:53.18 first, typically developing readers…
00:04:55.11 there’s differences in the activation patterns that we see,
00:04:59.23 where we see more localized activation or increased activation
00:05:02.29 within language regions,
00:05:05.16 while typically developing readers are listening to stories.
00:05:10.01 But for our children with reading difficulties,
00:05:12.18 they’re relying more so on a right hemisphere activation,
00:05:17.14 where we see more diffused activation patterns
00:05:20.18 within the brain while they’re listening to stories.
00:05:23.20 And this can often be translated
00:05:26.08 to them having poor narrative comprehension abilities
00:05:29.21 due to relying more on these functional connections
00:05:32.15 within the right hemisphere.
00:05:33.24 So, they’re not necessarily making that shift
00:05:35.21 to fluent reading the way that they need to.
00:05:40.10 Emergent literacy is where children
00:05:43.16 are engaging or starting to really learn about
00:05:46.14 the foundations of reading.
00:05:48.07 And that’s built within the home literacy environment.
00:05:51.22 So, the home literacy environment
00:05:54.04 helps to stimulate the child through educational resources:
00:05:56.22 books, museums, whatever that may be.
00:06:00.03 And as children are developing,
00:06:02.09 at 2 years old they’re starting to understand single words.
00:06:05.17 And they’re able to apply what they’re hearing
00:06:08.10 in their day-to-day lives.
00:06:10.03 You also have participation in symbolic play.
00:06:14.23 So, they’re engaging and they’re playing
00:06:16.13 with their caregiver or their parent.
00:06:18.14 But you also have basic rhyming.
00:06:20.24 Kids are able to know the difference
00:06:22.11 between the word cat and bat,
00:06:24.23 and they know that those two words rhyme together.
00:06:29.04 They’re also engaging in understanding stories
00:06:31.14 by age 5,
00:06:33.05 which is extremely critical as there’s a lot of overlap
00:06:35.22 with narrative comprehension and reading ability.
00:06:39.11 And we need children to be kindergarten-ready
00:06:42.29 by at least age 5,
00:06:44.27 as it is a predictor of later academic succes.
00:06:48.23 Focusing more so on that home reading environment,
00:06:52.21 we know that shared reading
00:06:54.23 is extremely critical for building the foundations
00:06:57.09 for reading acquisition.
00:06:59.17 And studies have shown that the more a mother and child engage in reading…
00:07:04.16 it’s related to increased activation within regions
00:07:07.19 that support visual imagery as well as semantics,
00:07:11.06 which is your ability to know about vocabulary
00:07:14.11 that’s right in front of you.
00:07:17.09 So, we have talked quite a bit
00:07:21.01 about reading difficulties and the way that they impact a child.
00:07:25.10 But we haven’t necessarily looked at how
00:07:27.18 it impacts their self-esteem or their mental health.
00:07:31.07 Children with reading difficulties
00:07:33.21 often have increased anxiety from the process
00:07:36.26 as they are just overwhelmed by the text
00:07:40.27 that’s in front of them.
00:07:42.17 In addition, children with reading difficulties
00:07:45.00 often have poor self-esteem.
00:07:47.18 They don’t want to engage in reading out loud in the class.
00:07:51.03 They’re nervous about the outcomes.
00:07:54.01 Studies have also shown that it’s related to school dropouts,
00:07:57.18 and also there’s a large amount of the prison population
00:08:00.17 that also have reading difficulties.
00:08:04.21 So, when looking at the environment
00:08:06.26 and how it impacts our everyday lives,
00:08:10.01 we know that reading difficulties
00:08:12.10 often have a genetic component.
00:08:13.23 However, there is quite a bit of literature
00:08:16.29 that shows that the environment
00:08:19.12 has extreme impacts on the reading ability for children.
00:08:24.02 And so, taking that model a little bit further
00:08:26.16 and looking at how the environment
00:08:29.22 can impact a child’s development or,
00:08:32.02 now, language development,
00:08:33.28 we know that it relies on the home literacy environment,
00:08:35.29 like we spoke about,
00:08:37.19 but also maternal reading fluency
00:08:39.19 is a critical component of reading ability,
00:08:42.00 as a child and a mother are engaging
00:08:44.12 in that shared reading process.
00:08:46.05 So, maternal reading fluency
00:08:48.06 has been shown to be positively associated
00:08:50.24 with the synchronization of their child’s future reading network
00:08:53.29 while they’re listening to stories.
00:08:56.13 And so, now that we know that maternal reading fluency
00:08:59.12 is essential for a child’s future reading acquisition
00:09:02.26 as well as their reading-related networks
00:09:05.12 and the formation of those networks,
00:09:08.04 what if that child’s mother doesn’t have fluent reading?
00:09:11.25 Well, we know that it could be related
00:09:14.11 to lower reading frequency, quality,
00:09:16.12 as well as engagement during those extremely critical
00:09:18.16 or sensitive periods
00:09:20.03 during child development,
00:09:21.28 so it’s important to explore this concept a little bit further.
00:09:24.22 So, for our study, we had twelve 4-year-old girls
00:09:27.24 that were recruited for this study,
00:09:30.08 and we also recruited their mothers
00:09:32.04 who had an average age of 20 years old.
00:09:35.25 These mothers were majority low-income,
00:09:39.14 and then 77 percent of them reported
00:09:41.28 having a household income that was $15,000 per year.
00:09:46.07 In addition, 67 percent of these mothers
00:09:48.21 were African American.
00:09:51.16 We now wanted to test these kids’ abilities.
00:09:54.02 Now that we had some demographic information on them,
00:09:56.14 we wanted to see where they stand.
00:09:58.04 And so, we first wanted to look at non-verbal intelligence,
00:10:01.17 and this doesn’t require the child to verbalize anything…
00:10:05.26 but maybe just select different types of patterns
00:10:07.24 that may go together.
00:10:09.19 And so, for a task, they would have to select whether or not…
00:10:14.15 which symbol would go within the allotted pattern,
00:10:17.18 and they would do this for a certain amount of time.
00:10:21.07 In addition, we also wanted to test phonological awareness.
00:10:24.16 We know that that’s a critical language ability
00:10:26.20 and also a predictor of kindergarten readiness.
00:10:28.23 So, their ability to know the differences
00:10:30.26 between the different sounds of the letters
00:10:32.21 is really important as they’re developing
00:10:35.02 with reading acquisition.
00:10:36.20 And we saw that these abilities were all intact for our kids.
00:10:40.03 In addition, we wanted to test the mothers.
00:10:42.08 We wanted to see where their reading ability was.
00:10:45.04 So, we did a site-word as well as a pseudoword efficiency test,
00:10:48.24 where a mother had to read a wrist…
00:10:51.06 a list of real words within 45 seconds,
00:10:54.13 and then she had to read a list of non-words within 45 seconds.
00:10:59.01 And that tells us a lot about their reading efficiency.
00:11:03.09 In addition, we did a reading comprehension and fluency task.
00:11:07.18 With this particular task,
00:11:09.13 based on the mother’s education level,
00:11:11.06 they will have to read a list of sentences
00:11:13.15 within an allotted amount of time
00:11:15.16 and then answer each comprehension question
00:11:17.15 with a true or false response.
00:11:21.02 We also wanted to image the brain.
00:11:23.04 It’s not just enough to do behavioral tests,
00:11:24.14 but we want to see what’s going on on the neurobiological level of the brain.
00:11:28.26 So, we did a resting state functional magnetic resonance imaging task,
00:11:34.05 where all the children had to do was stare at a cross
00:11:37.02 for two 5-minute sessions.
00:11:39.15 Now, it is a lot harder than it sounds,
00:11:41.11 especially for 4-year-olds.
00:11:42.23 We were able to collect the data
00:11:45.06 and further analyze how their brains are working
00:11:47.21 during this task.
00:11:50.00 With MRI, it’s a super interesting process
00:11:54.10 that’s kind of like a roller coaster.
00:11:56.16 You have… while you’re doing a task,
00:11:58.08 you have brain fluctuations,
00:12:00.20 where there is blood flowing to a particular region of your brain
00:12:05.00 while you’re carrying out a task.
00:12:07.03 And that’s that blood oxygen level-dependent response
00:12:10.07 that we’re able to measure to look at different activation patterns
00:12:13.06 within the brain.
00:12:15.02 Now, this also tells us a lot about different types of networks
00:12:17.23 that are working together.
00:12:19.22 So, if two brain regions are maybe functionally activated
00:12:23.10 at the same time (or maybe have a similar time series),
00:12:26.00 there’s a chance that they may be functionally connected to one another,
00:12:29.06 and so we can explore those networks a little bit further.
00:12:32.00 So, based on the literature,
00:12:36.04 we had our networks of interests.
00:12:38.01 So, we have the language network,
00:12:39.21 which we know is extremely critical
00:12:42.07 for later reading ability.
00:12:44.13 We have the default-mode network,
00:12:46.07 which is often activated when your brain
00:12:48.27 is at rest or in a daydreaming state.
00:12:51.05 We also have the frontal-parietal network,
00:12:53.13 which is involved in speed of processing,
00:12:56.03 or being able to allocate your attention to a cue or stimulus
00:12:59.08 in front of you.
00:13:00.25 And then we have the visual network,
00:13:03.12 which is pretty self-explanatory…
00:13:05.10 you know, what are you seeing in front of you
00:13:07.08 and what is being visually represented?
00:13:10.17 And with those four predefined networks,
00:13:14.05 we use the CONN functional connectivity toolbox,
00:13:17.08 which is a computational program
00:13:19.20 that allows us to measure the within-network connectivity
00:13:22.01 for each predefined network.
00:13:25.11 And then we’re able to correlate
00:13:27.21 that within-network connectivity
00:13:30.08 to our maternal reading measures,
00:13:32.11 so we have our site-word and pseudoword efficiency tasks,
00:13:35.13 and our reading comprehension and fluency tasks.
00:13:38.14 And we’re doing these correlations to our within-network
00:13:41.21 connectivity networks of interest.
00:13:45.11 And from that data, what we saw was that the language network
00:13:48.28 was negatively correlated to maternal reading fluency.
00:13:53.19 And we didn’t see any associations for the default-mode network
00:13:56.29 or the frontal-parietal network and the visual network.
00:14:01.04 And so, we wanted to take this data a step further,
00:14:03.17 and we wanted to do a network to whole brain approach
00:14:07.14 in order to know what other brain regions
00:14:09.21 are functionally connected to the language network
00:14:11.29 when examining maternal reading fluency as a variable.
00:14:17.20 So, we did this with the network to whole brain analysis,
00:14:21.03 where we’re able to look at the average time series
00:14:23.16 of our predefined network — which will be the language network —
00:14:28.27 and we are able to correlate it in order to see
00:14:32.00 what other brain regions may be on that functional time series
00:14:34.21 with our predefined network of interest.
00:14:37.07 So, for this data, what we saw was that
00:14:41.22 maternal reading fluency was negatively associated
00:14:43.19 with the language network
00:14:45.25 and eight other brain regions of interest.
00:14:47.29 But for the sake of time, we’ll only focus on three.
00:14:51.07 We saw that the left cerebellum and right cerebellum
00:14:54.13 were functionally connected to the language network.
00:14:57.19 In the literature, the traditional view of the cerebellum
00:15:01.03 is that it’s involved in motor control
00:15:03.04 and precision of movement.
00:15:04.20 But the literature is now starting to show us
00:15:07.28 that it’s also involved in language processing,
00:15:09.25 which is extremely important for later reading acquisition.
00:15:13.26 We also saw the left frontal pole,
00:15:16.16 which is functionally connected to the language network.
00:15:19.14 And in the literature, the frontal pole
00:15:21.22 is involved in attention, or your ability to allocate that focus
00:15:24.23 to what’s happening in front of you.
00:15:27.12 And this negative correlation
00:15:29.03 was also seen for those five other brain regions of interest
00:15:32.10 that were functionally connected to the language network.
00:15:35.22 So, this atypical brain-behavior relationship,
00:15:39.04 and this negative correlation,
00:15:42.01 could be really showing us a lot about
00:15:44.17 how these children are operating
00:15:46.28 or how they’re carrying out reading-related tasks.
00:15:50.26 So, what we see is that the lower the maternal reading fluency…
00:15:56.01 there’s this increase in functional connectivity
00:15:58.05 of the language network to brain regions
00:16:01.16 that are involved in semantics,
00:16:03.25 which is important for language processing,
00:16:05.13 and cognitive control,
00:16:07.13 which is important for attention abilities.
00:16:09.18 And this relationship could be due
00:16:12.26 to an increased neuronal strain
00:16:15.00 to the language network to these brain regions of interest
00:16:17.21 as children are having to allocate
00:16:20.00 more of their attention or their focus
00:16:22.00 to the language that is being said to them
00:16:25.08 by their mothers, who may have this lower maternal reading fluency.
00:16:29.18 And so, with emergent literacy,
00:16:31.21 we know that it’s this extremely important critical process
00:16:35.24 for later reading acquisition,
00:16:38.05 and so children should be meeting these developmental milestones
00:16:41.07 to be able to be ready for kindergarten.
00:16:45.11 So, what comes next?
00:16:47.10 Well, we examined these children
00:16:49.28 while they were in preschool,
00:16:51.16 when they’re engaging in emerging literacy.
00:16:53.12 But we also want to conduct longitudinal studies,
00:16:55.10 where we’re looking at these children
00:16:57.15 when they’re at school age,
00:16:59.18 so when they’re 8-12 years old.
00:17:01.26 And we want to know, by 8 years old,
00:17:04.18 do these children have some form of reading difficulty?
00:17:07.23 Or have they been able to develop typically
00:17:10.16 for their reading acquisition?
00:17:11.29 We also want to look at other variables
00:17:14.03 to kind of expand this model,
00:17:16.20 where we want to understand,
00:17:18.12 what’s the role of maternal education
00:17:20.22 on reading-related networks
00:17:22.28 and later reading ability for children?
00:17:26.12 How does this variable impact this process?
00:17:30.23 So, this data has real world applications.
00:17:36.11 In the state of Ohio,
00:17:38.07 32% of Ohio 4th graders
00:17:41.04 performed below the basic proficiency level in reading,
00:17:45.00 and this is extremely critical
00:17:46.14 because a lot of the children who have these deficits
00:17:49.08 or have these difficulties with reading
00:17:51.27 were either low-income,
00:17:54.09 African American,
00:17:55.27 or Hispanic children,
00:17:58.00 which shows that there are quite a few disparities
00:18:00.23 in reading achievement for this demographic of children.
00:18:05.01 So, for me, it was very important for me
00:18:08.28 to figure out a way to address this head on.
00:18:11.29 And so, I decided that Reading Awareness Month
00:18:14.27 needs to be represented in the state of Ohio.
00:18:17.27 And so, I reached out to partner organizations
00:18:21.16 within Cincinnati, Ohio
00:18:23.26 to be able to see if they would be interested in a book drive,
00:18:27.03 where we collected almost 700 books
00:18:30.24 for K-6th grade students
00:18:33.05 that would be equally distributed for them
00:18:36.05 to be able to set up their own at-home library.
00:18:38.11 So, it was a really amazing initiative
00:18:40.24 and, more than ever during the pandemic,
00:18:42.16 children deserve to have literacy materials in their households.
00:18:46.15 But also, we were able to submit a resolution
00:18:49.14 to Cincinnati City Council,
00:18:51.29 and although it didn’t get passed in March
00:18:54.04 because of coronavirus,
00:18:56.14 we were able to get it past when Cincinnati City Council
00:18:59.00 was able to resume in September, on the 2nd.
00:19:03.00 And it was so amazing to be able to watch this live stream
00:19:06.29 and know that we have these elected officials
00:19:09.22 that are also on board
00:19:12.13 with knowing that reading should be a priority for elementary school students
00:19:15.12 who are growing up within the Cincinnati area.
00:19:21.02 Poverty has real-life outcomes,
00:19:23.21 and children who grow up in these households
00:19:26.19 often are at a disadvantage
00:19:29.28 because there’s a digital divide.
00:19:31.11 They don’t have access to computers or to internet,
00:19:34.12 which can really impact their educational outcomes.
00:19:39.18 But also, there are higher rates of language disparities
00:19:42.18 in these households
00:19:44.25 because of the lack of enrichment that’s taking place.
00:19:47.07 The priorities are a little bit different.
00:19:49.03 Priorities may be focused on survival
00:19:51.00 and not necessarily academics.
00:19:54.27 In addition, children who grow up in low-income households
00:19:57.24 are also more likely to live in school districts
00:20:00.19 that are also poor
00:20:03.05 and don’t receive the same amount of resources
00:20:05.12 that other school districts do.
00:20:07.15 So, we do see these disparities
00:20:09.17 in access to educational resources
00:20:11.14 that are critical for a child developing.
00:20:14.19 So, what can we do?
00:20:16.16 How can we change the outcomes for reading for these kids?
00:20:20.25 Well, we can volunteer and work as tutors
00:20:23.22 in a local elementary school.
00:20:25.17 We can provide them with the tools that they need.
00:20:27.28 In addition to that, we can encourage legislators
00:20:30.13 to designate more funding to neuroscience research
00:20:33.15 that examines reading difficulties.
00:20:36.17 But we can also rely on pre-existing literature
00:20:40.02 in order to inform educational services
00:20:42.14 for low-income families.
00:20:45.10 At the end of the day,
00:20:47.19 their voices need to be represented,
00:20:49.16 so we need to assess the needs
00:20:52.04 of the school districts, parents, and communities
00:20:54.14 by seeing what they need,
00:20:56.18 and seeing what is best suited for their ability.
00:21:00.15 Children are so much more than their circumstances.
00:21:04.00 They are our future teachers.
00:21:06.03 They’re scientists, counselors.
00:21:08.12 They’re future lawyers, CEOs, and legislators.
00:21:11.24 They’re future journalists
00:21:14.08 and maybe even the president of the United States.
00:21:16.08 But a child will never know what they can be
00:21:18.23 unless they have the tools and the foundation to be able to succeed.
00:21:22.19 Reading difficulties are a journey.
00:21:25.00 And for me, the process was extremely difficult.
00:21:27.29 I cried quite a bit
00:21:31.05 trying to be able to carry out reading,
00:21:33.19 and I didn’t have a lot of joy when I was going to school
00:21:36.24 because I knew that I was gonna struggle
00:21:38.26 and that there were going to be difficulties.
00:21:41.02 But because of support,
00:21:43.03 and because I had people like my parents,
00:21:45.07 like my mother,
00:21:46.16 who never gave up on me,
00:21:48.14 I’m standing here today giving you all this presentation
00:21:51.25 about reading difficulties
00:21:54.12 and how they are critically important to address.
00:21:57.13 And so, I’m grateful to be here,
00:21:59.17 and I’m excited for future outcomes
00:22:03.02 and future career moves
00:22:05.04 where I’m able to impact and advocate for low-income communities
00:22:08.01 so they’ll have the tools that they need to succeed.

This Talk

Speaker: Paige Greenwood

Audience:

Educators of H. School / Intro Undergrad
Student
Educators of Adv. Undergrad / Grad
Researcher
Educators

Recorded: November 2020

Talk Overview

In order to succeed in kindergarten and beyond, children must develop language skills within their home reading environment. This environment is often influenced by the reading ability of a child’s caregivers. In this Share Your Research talk, Dr. Paige Greenwood describes her doctoral research on the association between maternal reading ability and the development of the language brain network in children. Her work showed that lower maternal reading fluency is associated with higher language network connectivity to brain regions involved in cognitive control and semantics in children. These data suggest that if there is lower frequency or quality of engagement in the home reading environment, children’s brains may overcompensate to meet their language development needs.

Speaker Bio

Paige Greenwood

Dr. Paige Greenwood received her PhD from the University of Cincinnati College of Medicine. Greenwood is now a postdoctoral research fellow at Columbia University Division of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry. Her research interests are in investigating the impact of environmental disadvantage on reading development using neuroimaging modalities. In addition to her research, she is a… Continue Reading

Credits

Brittany Anderton (iBiology): Producer
Eric Kornblum (iBiology): Videographer
Rebecca Ellsworth (iBiology): Editor
Jiefei Yuan (iBiology): Editor
Chris George (iBiology): Graphics
Maggie Hubbard (iBiology): Graphics

Talk Overview

Speaker Bio

Paige Greenwood

Find a Video

Topics

For Educators

Educators Recommend

Techniques

Free Courses

Career Development

Our Favorites

Connect with Us

Talk Overview

Speaker Bio

Paige Greenwood

More Talks in Neuroscience

Related Resources

Credits

Reader Interactions

Leave a Reply Cancel reply

Footer

Find a Video

Topics

For Educators

Educators Recommend

Techniques

Free Courses

Career Development

Our Favorites

Connect with Us